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Research Focus 3

Companion animals and children

Author: Alison Murray BSc (Hons) MSc VN, SCAS member
Alison is currently Training and research manager for Pets as Therapy
Contact details:   AReynolds@petsastherapy.org

Please note: No part of this paper may be reproduced without permission from SCAS. 

Aside from the now extensive literature on the links between child abuse, animal cruelty and domestic violence, which is worthy of a review in itself, research papers about children and companion animals tend to fall into one of three broad categories:

• The role of pets in childhood and family development
• Applications of animal-assisted therapy for children
• Companion animals and children's health

This issue of Research Focus is intended to illustrate the variety and scope of research evidence related to companion animals and childhood development, health and well-being.

The role of pets in childhood and family development

Many authors have written about the role of pets in the family (Ottney Cain, 1991; Kidd and Kidd, 1996; Triebenbacher, 2000).  Ottney Cain (1991) suggests that there are at least nine critical functions that a family pet fulfils but that the major roles that pets play in the family, those of pleasure and companionship, are especially true during childhood. 

Pet ownership is highest among families with children, irrespective of the children's ages and it is suggested that pets are often acquired to provide companionship and teach responsibility (Haggerty Davis, 1991), but that the role of the pet changes as the child grows up (Triebenbacher, 2000). However, Kidd et al. (1992)demonstrated that parents who acquired pets specifically to promote a sense of responsibility in their children actually showed a high level of rejection of their companion animals to animal shelters, suggesting that the expectations of the family pet can be too high.    

Owning a pet can 'prepare' children for a number of real-life experiences, for example life processes, such as social interactions; life and death; reproductive behaviour and nurturing behaviour (McNicholas and Collis, 2001).  The loss of a pet may be the first experience of death that a child encounters but can also be especially difficult for children due to a lack of cognitive and emotional development related to the permanence of death (Triebenbacher, 2000). 

There have been many studies of both children and adults that differentiate between pet ownership and the need for attachment to a pet, in order to benefit from companion animal contact.  Assessing childhood attachment to companion animals has involved the development of a number of measurement instruments, such as the Companion Animal Bonding Scale (Poresky, Hendrix, Mosier and Samuelson, 1987); the Young Children's Empathy Measure (Poresky and Hendrix, 1990), the Measurement of Emotional Empathy and the Animal Empathy scales (Paul, 2000); the Self-Concept Scale for Children and the Attachment to Animals scale (see Van Houtte and Jarvis, 1995).  However, many of these studies have yielded variable results in terms of the effects of pet ownership or attachment on childhood development, particularly in the development of empathy, self-concept and self-esteem (Poresky and Hendrix, 1990; Ascione, 1992; Van Houtte and Jarvis, 1995).  For example, Paul (2000) examined the link between empathy with animals and empathy towards people and challenged the common assumption that people who are empathetic with animals will also be empathetic towards people.  She did find a significant correlation between animal and human-oriented empathy with females tending to score more highly on both measures.  Both childhood and current pet ownership was associated with higher animal-oriented empathy scores than non-pet owners; however human-oriented empathy did not significantly differ between people who had owned pets during childhood and those who had not. In addition, people living at home with children did display higher human-oriented empathy scores than people who did not have children, but there was no difference between these two groups on their animal-oriented empathy scores.  The results demonstrated that 'empathy' is not a unitary concept and the idea that people who develop compassionate attitudes towards animals during childhood will show enhanced levels of empathy towards other people in adulthood was only partially supported. 

Van Houtte and Jarvis' (1995) study investigated the relationship between self-esteem, self-concept, autonomy and attachment to pets in pet-owning and non-pet owning pre-adolescents. The authors criticise much previous research for its anecdotal nature and lack of cause and effect knowledge of the role of pets in children's development.  They attempted to link the occurrence of these concepts in preadolescents with parental marital status, number of siblings and social class.  Children who owned pets were more autonomous, as measured by their ability to view their parents in roles other than a purely parental one, had a higher degree of self-concept (older children only) and also had higher self-esteem.  However, attachment to animals was not necessarily associated with pet-ownership, or with higher scores on the autonomy, self-concept and self-esteem scales.

Applications of animal assisted therapy for children

Although the positive benefits of pets on childhood development and general well-being have been the subject of research studies for many years, research into the specific physical and mental health benefits of companion animals to children is much more recent and is generally lacking (Heimlich, 2001).

For example, Moody, King and O'Rourke 's (2002) study on a dog visitation programme to a children's paediatric ward is suggested by the authors to be the only study analysing pet visitation programmes in Australia. The Mater Children's Hospital in Brisbane was the first paediatric hospital in Australia to adopt a formal animal-assisted therapy (AAT) programme in 1999.  The programme had two main objectives: to reduce the traumatic effects of hospitalisation on children and to promote socialisation between families and staff on the ward.  The AAT programme was intended to have a 'normalizing' effect on the hospital environment by providing an alternative focus of attention; reducing both physical and emotional isolation; providing opportunities for sensory stimulation and acting as a potentially novel source of education.

The study demonstrated that staff perceptions of the potential benefits of the programme prior to its implementation were generally supported, plus some unforeseen additional benefits of happier wards and wards more interesting, (p.542) indicating a positive effect on the general working environment.  Other studies have examined the effects of companion animals on helping children to cope with repeated hospital visits (Boyd and Hunsberger, 1998), as well as being effective in reducing short-term distress during routine physical examinations (Nagengast et al. 1997).  

Gasalberti (2006) reports on the use of a range of alternative therapies including pet-assisted therapy for children with special health needs.  The author particularly highlights the proliferance of studies on the benefits of hippotherapy for children with cerebral palsy (see Gonzalez and Hudson, 2003; McGibbon and Grant, 2003 and Lechner et al. 2003).          

Although Granger et al's (1998) study only involved evaluating the effects of an AAT intervention programme on the mental health of just two children, there are many other studies demonstrating the positive effects of companion animal interaction on emotionally and behaviourally disturbed children (see also Mallon, 1992 and Katcher and Wilkins, 1994).

Hemsworth and Pizer's (2006) review highlights that there are very few studies examining the potential risks of companion animal contact to people, particularly in relation to children.  There is a lack of empirical data quantifying risk, despite the often-cited infection control reasons for animal-assisted programmes being refused in certain health care facilities.  This area still remains one that offers many opportunities for much-needed research.  Hemsworth and Pizer (2006) highlight that only a relatively small number of infections in people are associated with pet contact, although they were able to identify the main organisms causing concern.  They also report that even in immuno-compromised children, the majority of pet species present low risk, as long as basic levels of human hygiene and pet health are maintained.  By contrast, there is a wealth of new evidence emerging on the links between animal contact or pet ownership and childhood allergies and this has formed the subject of a previous research focus.

Level 1 and 2 studies (randomised controlled and longitudinal studies) are lacking in all areas of human-animal interactions research and the area of pets and children is no exception.  The medical and allied professions will continue to demand empirical evidence and this will continue to remain a challenge for all researchers in the human-animal bond field.        

References

Ascione, F. R.1992. Enhancing children's attitudes about the treatment of animals: generalized to human-directed empathy. Anthrozoos 5: 176-191.

Boyd, J. R. and Hunsberger, M. 1998. Chronically ill children coping with repeated hospitalisations: their perceptions of suggested interventions. Journal of Paediatric Nursing. 13 (6) 330-342.

Gasalberti, D. 2006. Alternative therapies for children and youth with special health care needs. Journal of Pediatric Health Care 20: 133-136.

Gonzalez, R. and Hudson, S. 2003. Hippotherapy offers tremendous benefits to kids with special needs. Cerebral Palsy Magazine 1: 20.

Granger, B. P., Kogan, L., Fitchett, J. and Helmer, K. 1998. A human-animal intervention team approach to animal-assisted therapy. Anthrozoos 11 (3): 172-176.

Haggerty Davis, J. 1991. Pet ownership and stress over the family life cycle. Holistic Nursing Practice 5 (2): 52-57.

Heimlich, K. 2001. Animal-assisted therapy and the severely disabled child: A quantitative study. Journal of Rehabilitation.  67 (4): 48-54.

Hemsworth, S. and Pizer, B. 2006. Pet ownership in immunocompromised children A review of the literature and survey of existing guidelines. European Journal of Oncology Nursing. 10:117-127.

Katcher, A. H. and Wilkins, G. G. 1994. Helping children with attention-deficit hyperactive and conduct disorders though animal-assisted therapy and education. InterActions  2(4): 5-9.

Kidd, A. H. and Kidd, R. M. 1996. Developmental factors leading to positive attitudes towards wildlife and conservation. Applied Animal Behavioural Science 47: 119-125.

Lechner, H. E., Feldhaus, S., Gudmundsen, L., Hegemann, D., Michel, D., Zach, G.A. and Knecht, H. 2003. The short-term effect of hippotherapy on spasticity in patients with spinal cord injury.  Spinal Cord  41 (9): 502-505.

Mallon, G. P. 1992. Utilisation of animals as therapeutic adjuncts with children and youth: A review of the literature. Child and Youth Care Forum 21 (2): 53-67.

McGibbon, B.W. and Grant, K. L. 2003. Improvements in muscle symmetry in children with cerebral palsy after equine-assisted therapy. Journal of Alternative and Complementary Therapies. 9 (6): 817-825.

McNicholas, J. and Collis, G. 2001. Children's representations of pets in their social networks. Child: Care, Health and Development 27 (3) 279-294.

Moody, W.J., King, R., O'Rourke, S. 2002. Attitudes of paediatric medical ward staff to a dog visitation programme. Journal of Clinical Nursing 11: 537-544.

Nagengast, S. L., Baun, M. M. , Megal, M. and Leibowitz, J. M. 1997. The effects of a the presence of a companion animal on physiological arousal and behavioural distress in children during a physical exam.  Journal of Paediatric Nursing 12 (6): 323-330.

Ottney Cain, A. 1991. Pets and the family. Holistic Nursing Practice 5 (2): 58-63.

Paul, E. S. 2000. Empathy with animals and with humans: Are they linked? Anthrozoos 13 (4): 194-202.

Poresky, R. H. and Hendrix, H. 1990. Differential effects of pet presence and pet-bonding on young children. Psychological Reports 67: 51-54.

Poresky, R. H., Hendrix, H., Mosier, J. E. and Samuelson, M. L. 1987. The companion animal bonding scale: Internal reliability and construct validity. Psychological Reports 60: 743-746.

Triebenbacher, S. L. 2000. The companion animal within the family system: the manner in which animals enhance life within the home. Chp 15 in: Fine A (ed). 2000. Handbook on Animal Assisted Therapy: Theoretical Foundations and Guidelines for Practice. Academic Press. 

Van Houtte, B.A. and Jarvis, P.A. 1995. The role of pets in preadolescent psychosocial development. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 16: 463-479.